Sassanian Period
224 - 642

Sassanians, an Iranian dynasty evolved by Ardashir I, overthrew the Parthians and created an empire that was constantly changing in size as it reacted to Rome and Byzantium to the west and to the Kushans and Hephthalites to the east. Under Sassanian rule a revival of Iranian nationalism took place, and Zoroastrianism became the state religion. The government was centralized with provincial officials directly responsible to the throne. Financed by the government, Iranian art and architecture experienced a general renaissance, metalwork and gem engraving became highly sophisticated, agriculture developed, scholarship was encouraged, and works from both the East and West were translated into Pahlavi, the language of the Sassanians.

224 Ardashir founded 'the Sassanian Empire and became king of Persia.
The ancestors of Ardashir had played a leading role in the rites of the fire temple at Istakhr. With the new dynasty having these priestly antecedents, important developments in the Zoroastrian religion occurred during the Sassanian period.
- Ardashir extended his military and political victories by taking possession of the palace in Ctesiphon; by his assuming the title "king of kings of the Iranians"; and by his re-founding and re-building of the city of Seleucia, located on the Tigris under the new name of Weh-Ardashir ("the Good Deed of Ardashir").
- Kartir, an influential high priest of Zoroastrianism, flourished. His aim was to purge Persia of all other religions, especially Manichaeism. He retained his position in the Sassanian court for half a century up to the reign of Bahram I, when he died.
240 For the second time, Mani beheld in vision an angel calling him to preach a new religion at the age of 24.
Mani obeyed the heavenly order to manifest himself publicly and to proclaim his doctrines. He combined the doctrines of Zoroaster, Buddha and Jesus (A) to introduce a new religion of a universal character.
- Mani traveled to India, probably Sind and Turan, and made converts.
240 Ardashir abdicated the throne in favor of his chosen heir,his son Shapur.
Shapur assumed the responsibilities of government but delayed his coronation until after his father's death.
241 Shapur crowned himself assuming the title of "king of kings of Iran and non-Iran".
- Christianity gained a firm footing in the lands of Tigris and Euphrates.
As long as the Roman Empire remained pagan, the Christian communities of Persia lived undisturbed by persecution.
241 Mani was favorably received on his return by the newly crowned Persian king, Shapur.
Mani was permitted to preach his religion in the Persian Empire during the long reign of Shapur.
- Mani presented the king with his first book, the "Shapuregan", ("dedicated to Shapur''), a summary of his teachings written in the Middle Persian language.
To him, the essence of all religions was the Truth, and that existence was a constant battle between Good-offering peaceful harmony-and Evil, causing constant agitation. Good and Evil manifested themselves in the individual in separation of body and soul, heart and mind, sensual and spiritual. In society, this duality reflected itself in the con' between 'divine' spiritualism and 'satanic' spiritualism. Hit religious philosophy appealed to many in Persia, Central. Asia, China, Syria, North Africa and Italy.
244 The Emperor Gordian levied across the Roman Empire an army of Goths and Germans against Persia. On the bordei
of Asuristan at Massice ("Misikhe" on the Euphrates), a great battle took place. The emperor Gordian was killed the Roman army destroyed.
244 The Romans proclaimed Philip the Arab emperor.
- Emperor Philip came to peace terms and as ransom for lives of the Romans, he gave Shapur 500,000 Dinars and
became his tributary.
249 Emperor Philip died.
253 Valerian became Emperor.
260 Emperor Valerian was defeated and captured by the Persians at the battle of Edessa.
Shapur brought more than 70,000 Roman soldiers to Rome witnessed the so-called Thirty Tyrants general disorder and revolt.
In the northeast Shapur secured the submission of the Kushans.
260 Established priests judged that Mani posed a threat to their power.
266 Odenathus, after raising Palmyra to a position of power and repelling the Persians, was murdered. His widow, Zenobia, became ruler of Palmyra on behalf of her son and made extensive conquests.
272 Shapur died. He was succeeded by his two sons, Hormuz and Bahram, of whose reigns little is known.
274 Under the reign of Bahram, Mani was attacked by Zoroastrian priests and was imprisoned by the king at Gundeshapur.
After 26 days of trials, which his followers called the "Passion of the Illuminator" or Mani's "crucifixion," Mani delivered a final message to his disciples and died sometime between 274 and 277.
276 Bahram II became king and ruled for seventeen years. Bahram II and later Narseh concluded two agreements with the Romans as the result of which the Empire lost its western provinces.
282 Emperor Carus (r.282-283) invaded Mesopotamia without meeting opposition and reached Ctesiphon. His sudden death, however, caused the Roman army to withdraw. Bahram II had been prevented from meeting the Roman challenge by the rebellion of his brother, Hormuz, the ruler of Kushans, who tried to establish an independent eastern empire.
This attempt ended in failure, and Bahram II appointed his younger son the future Bahram III, as viceroy of Sakastan, or Sistan.
293 Bahram II died, and Narseh, the youngest son of Shapur, challenged the succession of Bahram III and won the crown.
294 King Tiridates of Armenia adopted the Christian faith, thus Christianity became predominant in Armenia.
296 Narseh was forced to sign a peace treaty with the Romans by which Armenia remained under Roman suzerainty and certain areas in Northern Mesopotamia were ceded to Rome.
By this treaty, which lasted for about 40 years, the Sassanians withdrew completely from the disputed districts.
306 Constantine the Great became the Emperor of Rome. He made Christianity the official religion of the Roman world.
- The Syro-Christian populations of Mesopotamia and Babylonia began to feel sympathy with Roman policies for
religious reasons.
- Emperor Constantine and Armenia developed closer ties based on their common faith.
Armenia was torn between two factions of its population. Opposed to the newly converted pro-Roman Christians, there was a powerful section of Armenian nobility who maintained the old ties and connections with Persia. The Christian subjects of the king of kings gradually became political suspects in the eyes of the Persian authorities.
309 Shapur II ascended the throne and ruled for seventy years. For about half a century, Shapur II continued victories over the Romans.
330 Constantinople was founded by Constantine I.
337 Shapur II resumed the war in the west.
He began his assaults with a view to wiping out the disgrace of the two agreements concluded by Bahram II and Narseh with the Romans.
- The subsequent peace restored the disputed provinces including Armenia to Shapur II.
337 Constantine the Great died.
337 Shapur II began a new war with Rome.
Shapur II besieged the fortress city of Nisibis three times without success.
339 The Sassanian emperors consequently felt the need to consolidate Zoroastrianism, and efforts were made to perfect and enforce state orthodoxy.All heresy was proscribed by the state, defection from the official faith was made a capital crime, and persecution of the heterodox-the Christians in particular-began.
348 Shapur II defeated the Romans at the battle of Singara.
350 Shapur II was unsuccessful in his third attempt to siege Nisibis.
253 Shapur II was distracted by the appearance of a new enemy, the nomadic Chionites (Huns), on his eastern frontier until 358.
359 Having subjected the Chionites, Shapur II returned to Mesopotamia and with their help captured the city of Amida, modern Diyarbakir, on the upper Tigris.
361 Emperor Julian the Apostate (r.361-363) re-opened hostilities against the Sassanians after the death of Constantius.
- Emperor Julian restored paganism.
363 Having reached the vicinity of Ctesiphon, Julian was struck dead with an arrow shot by an unknown party whilst negotiating with Shapur II.
- Julian was succeeded by Jovian.
363 Emperor Jovian was forced to give up the Roman possessions on the Tigris, including Nisibis, and to abandon Armenia and his Arsacid protege, Arsaces III, to the Sassanians.
The greater part of Armenia then became a Persian province.
- Emperor Jovian signed a humiliating peace treaty with the Sassanians.
364 Emperor Valentinian divided the Roman Empire into eastern and western Empires, and appointed Valens as the eastern Emperor.
379 Shapur II died.
His death was followed by half a century of decline in the power of the kings.
- Ardashir II, Shapur III, Bahram IV took their turn on the Sassanian throne.
399 Yazdgerd came to the throne.
His initial inclination toward tolerance of the Christian and Jewish religions was met by resistance on the part of nobility.
420 Yazdgerd died. - The nobles refused to admit any of Yazdgerd's sons to the throne.
421 Despite the nobles refusal, a son of Yazdgerd, Bahram V eventually won the throne.
Bahram V, or Bahram Gur ("Hunter of Onager"), became a favorite of Persian popular tradition exuberantly celebrating  his prowess in hunting and love. He was also renowned as a poet and musician.
422 Unsuccessful in war against the Romans, Bahram V made a lOO-year peace and granted freedom of worship to the Christians.
- In the east Bahram V succeeded in repelling an invasion by a new wave of Hephthalites.
According to Chinese chronicles, Hephthalites were originally a tribe living to the north of the Great Wall.
Elsewhere they were called White Huns or Hunas. They had no cities or system of writing, lived in felt tents, and practiced polyandry. Nothing is known of their language.
422 Eastern Empire launched successful campaigns against Persia.
- Bahram V fought a short war with Byzantium.
The war ended in because Bahram did not believe in oppressing Christians. The new entente between
Rome and Persia led to freedom of worship for the Christians.
438 Bahram V died and was succeeded by Yazdgerd II.
After his death,another century of upheaval shook the Sassanian Empire.
457 King Piruz ascended the Sassanian throne.
- Piruz fell in battle with the Hephthalites; his treasure and family were captured, and the country was devastated.
484 King Balash, Piruz's brother, became king.
486 King Balash, unable to cope with continuing incursions, was deposed and blinded.
488 King Kavad ruled his first reign for eight years.
488 The crown fell to Kavad, or Qobad, son of Piruz.
490 Mazdak propagated his theology.
496 While the empire continued to suffer distress, Kavad was dethroned and imprisoned.
499 Kavad escaped to the Hephthalites and with their assistance was restored to the throne for the second time.
- The Nestorian doctrine claiming that divine and human persons remained separate in the incarnate Christ had then become dominant among the Christians in Persia and was definitely established as the accepted form of Christianity in the Empire.
- Kavad proved himself a vigorous ruler and restored peace and order in the land.
502 Roman Empire and Persia fought a battle that lasted five years.
The campaign against the Romans resulted in the destruction of Amida, but another inroad by the Hephtalites in the east compelled Kavad to treaty with Byzantines.
522 Another war took place between the Romans and the Persians.
524 Mazdak was assassinated as a result of the intrigue of the Zoroastrian priesthood.
527 Kavad resumed the war and defeated the Byzantine general Belisarius.
528 The crown prince Khosrow, who was an Orthodox Zoroastrian, in collaboration with the chief magus, plotted the condemnation of the Mazdakites and their massacre.
531 Khosrow Anushirvan became king and introduced extensive reforms.
Under Khosrow, the empire reached its zenith. Khosrow in particular favored extensive irrigation and urbanism.
Villages were rebuilt, roads and bridges restored, and neglected canals cleaned out. Khosrow had the myths and stories of heroes collected. The famous Persian carpet 'Spring of Khosrow' was woven. Khosrow'sreputation as an enlightened and just ruler was celebrated during his lifetime and later became legendary.
- Khosrow re-established Zoroastrian orthodoxy.
Khosrow's authority was recognized by all classes including priesthood.
- Khosrow re-established Persia as a military power.
Compulsory military service was introduced.
532 A peace treaty was concluded between Justinian and Khosrow.
The restoration of peace brought about a considerable amount of religious tolerance, especially towards Christians.
- Khosrow moved the capital to Ctesiphon.
Administration of government was organized on a hierarchical basis and society was differentiated into clearly defined social classes.
- A new imperial tax system was established.
The levying of land revenue in kind was replaced by a fixed assessment in cash.
540 Khosrow began his long military campaigns against Justinian, with the invasion of Syria.
541 Khosrow extended his power to the Black Sea and inflicted heavy defeats on the Hephthalites.
He burned Antioch and transplanted many of its inhabitants to a new town already built on the same plan near Ctesiphon.
542 The plague devastated Europe.
560 A new nation, that of the Turks, emerged in the east.
By concluding an alliance with a Turkish leader called Sinjibu (Silzibul), Khosrow was able to inflict a decisive defeat on the Hephthalites.
562 Another peace treaty was concluded between Justinian and Khosrow.
562 Khosrow had all the followers of Mazdak purged in one day.
Neither Mazdakism nor Manichaeism totally died in Persia.
565 Emperor Justinian died.
570 Abul Qasim Mohammad Ibn Abdullah Ibn Abdul Mutallib Ibn Hashim (S) was born in Mecca after the death of his father.
He later became the Prophet of Islam, the last in the line of the Old and New Testament Proohets according to the Qur'an.
- Mohammad (S) went under the care of his paternal grandfather Abdul Mutallib, the head of the prestigious Hashim clan and a prominent figure in Mecca politics. Mecca, inhabited by the tribe of Quraysh, to which the Hashim clan belonged, was a mercantile center formed around a sanctuary, the Kaaba, which assured the safety of those who came to trade at the fairs.
Mecca was strategically located on a trade route between Yemen and the Mediterranean region. Goods were carried on this trade route from India and Ethiopia to the Mediterranean area-Gaza and Damascus.
572 There was a renewal of war between Persia and the Roman Empire.
The alliance between Khosrow and the Turks became a source of friction during this war. The Turks sometimes acted as ally of Byzantium against Persia.
573 Abu Bakr, who later became the first Caliph, was born. 575 The Persians conquered Yemen in Arabia.
576 Mohammad (s) lost his mother, Amina of the clan of Zuhra.
578 Mohammad (s) lost his grandfather and came under the care of the new head of the clan, his uncle Abu Talib By Arab custom, minors did not inherit; therefore, Mohammad (S) did not have a share in the property of his father and grandfather. Mohammad (S) accompanied his uncle on trading journeys to Syria.
579 Khosrow bequeathed the war to his son Hormuz IV (579590) who in spite of repeated negotiations failed to reestablish peace between Byzantium and Persia.
- Hormuz IV was unable to display the same authority as his father, and antagonized the Zoroastrian clergy by failing to take action against the Christians.
586 Umar Ibn al-Khattab, who later became the second Caliph,was born.
590 Bahram Chubin led a military coup against Hormuz IV.
590 The last great king of 5assanians, Khosrow II (Khosrow Parviz), ascended the throne.
- Bahram Chubin seized the capital and declared himself king.
- Khosrow II was compelled to take refuge with the Emperor Maurice from whom he obtained troops.
591 Bahram Chubin, routed by Khosrow II, fled and was killed by the Turks. This marked the beginning of Khosrow II's reign.
595 Mohammad (S) married Khadija (R).
He had been in charge of the business tradings of Khadija,
a rich woman from the clan of Asad. The 40-year-old
Khadija was so impressed by Mohammad (S) that she proposed marriage, which proved a turning point in Mohammad (S)'s life.
600 Ali Ibn Abu Talib (A) was born in Mecca.
602 Sassanian armies entered Byzantium.
602 Mu'awiya the son of Abu Sufyan, was born.
He later became the founder of the Umayyad dynasty in 661.
602 The assassination of Maurice gave Khosrow II the pretext he needed to attack Byzantium.
- Khosrow II's army penetrated as far as Chalcedon, opposite
Constantinople. 605 Fatima (A), the Prophet (S)'s daughter, was born.
610 Reflecting in Hera, a cave near Mecca, Mohammad (S)
received the divine revelation.
The revelations,disclosed to him through the Intermediary Jt th! Archangel Gabriel, commanded the Prophet (S) to recite in the name of God, which marked the beginning of his mission as the messenger of God.
At frequent intervals until his death, he received revelations directly from God. The revelations proclaimed a new religious and social order based on allegiance to one god, and became the cornerstone of Muslim faith, practice and law.
As asserted in the Qur'an, Mohammad (S) is neither a divinity nor a figure of worship, but merely a human to whom revelations, are disclosed.
610 Ten-year-old Ali (A) became one of the first converts to Islam.
611 The Persian army captured Antioch and Damascus.
613 Prophet Mohammad (5) began preaching publicly.
614 5assanians conquered Jerusalem and brought part of the True Cross to Ctesiphon.
614 Aisha, Abu Bakr's daughter and a future wife of the Prophet (S), was born.
615 Active opposition appeared against Prophet Mohammad (5) and his teachings.
Although his preaching was basically religious, it criticized the conduct and attitudes of the rich merchants of Mecca. Certain points in the Qur'an were questioned. According to the available information, commercial pressure was brought on his supporters numbering seventy. They were mostly young men, sons and brothers of the richest men in Mecca, when they joined Mohammad (S).
615 The persecution led to the emigration of some of the
Muslims to Ethiopia. 616 5assanians conquered 5ardis and Ephesus. 616 The chief clans of Mecca boycotted the clan of Hashim for
continuing to support Mohammad (S) and not curbing his preaching.
The Prophet (S) and his followers were forced to retreat to the 5he'b of Abu Talib, a valley near Mecca, where they were compelled to stay for three years.
619 Khadija, who remained the sole spouse of the Prophet (S) until then, died at the She'b of Abu Talib, leaving the Prophet (S) in great grief.
619 Abu Talib, full brother of the Prophet (S)'s father, died. Although he protected the Prophet (S), he never converted to Islam.
619 Abu Lahab, uncle of Prophet Mohammad (S), succeeded as head of Hashim clan.
619 The boycott against Hashim clan lost momentum.
Perhaps because some of the participants realized they were harming their own economic interests.
619 Abu Lahab, closer to the richest merchants and at their instigation, withdrew the protection of the clan, or the Right of Javar, from Mohammad (S).
This made Prophet Mohammad (S) vulnerable to attack, which undermined his ability to propagate his religion in Mecca.
619 Mohammad (S) left for the neighboring town of at-Ta'if. The inhabitants were unprepared to receive his message and he failed to find support. Having secured the protection of the head of another clan, he returned to Mecca.
619 Sassanian army occupied Egypt.
The Byzantine Empire was indeed at its lowest ebb.
620 Persia pushed Byzantium all the way back to Constantinople.
Persia regained frontiers it had not held since the time of Achaemenians.
621 Mohammad (5) married Aisha whom he held most dear.
This enhanced Abu Bakr's prominence in the early Muslim community.
621 Twelve men from Medina, visiting Mecca for the annual pilgrimage to the Kaaba, still a pagan shrine, secretly professed themselves Muslims to Prophet Mohammad (S). They went back to propagate the new theology in Medina.
622 Having rebuilt the nucleus of a new army since his coronation in 610, Emperor Heraclius set out and retaliated vigorously against the Persians.
622 A representative party of 75 persons from Medina, including two women, not merely professed Islam but also took an oath to defend Prophet Mohammad (S) as they would their own kin.
622 Prophet Mohammad (S) encouraged his faithful Meccan followers to make their way to Medina in small groups; about 70 emigrated.
622 Prophet Mohammad (S) decided to migrate to Medina himself.
He chose Abu Bakr as his sale companion on the journey.
622 Meccans plotted to kill Mohammad (S) before he could leave. Ali (A) risked his own life by sleeping in the Prophet (S)'s bed that night to impersonate him so that Prophet Mohammad (S) could slip away unperceived by using unfrequented paths to Medina.